Notes Class 11 Chapter 7 History Maharashtra Board

India and Iran (Persia)

7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran

1. Historical Trade and Cultural Relations: Archaeological evidence confirms trade and cultural ties between the Indian subcontinent and Iran since Harappan times. The Elam empire, contemporary to the Harappan civilization, was located in southwest Iran, with its capital at Susa (also called Susiana). Susa remained the capital for subsequent Iranian dynasties.
2. Geographical Significance: Iran serves as a vital link between East and West Asia, facilitating trade and cultural exchanges. The Royal Road, developed by Cyrus II and Daryush I, stretched from Susa to the Mediterranean Sea, with branches connecting to India and Egypt.
3. Achaemenid Empire: Founded by Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) of the Achaemenid dynasty from the Pars tribe in northwest Iran, the empire was named the Persian Empire after the Pars region. The main city, Persepolis, was known as Pars to the Greeks.

Capitals:

• Pasargade: Cyrus II began building a new capital, but it remained incomplete.
• Susa: Re-established as the capital by Cambyses II, who also conquered Egypt. Daryush I fortified Susa, constructing a palace and a hypostyle hall called Apadana.
• Persepolis: Built by Daryush I in a style similar to Susa, with a palace and Apadana.

Trade Expansion: Persian emperors secured ancient caravan routes, enabling trade from Asia and the Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Indian ivory and teakwood were in high demand in Persian markets.

By the Way:

• Ariana: Another name for Iran, referred to as Ariane by Greek historians and Ariana in Latin.
• Royal Road: Used by Alexander during his expedition to India.

7.2 Conflict between the Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and Greece

Frequent Conflicts: Greek historians, notably Herodotus, documented ongoing battles between the Achaemenid Empire and Greek city-states. The Achaemenids first conquered West Asian kingdoms and then Greek city-states, leading to intermittent conflicts.

Key Events:

• Cyrus II’s Conquest: Around mid-6th century B.C.E., Cyrus II conquered Lydia, a Greek state, bringing Ionian Greek city-states in Anatolia (Asia Minor) under Achaemenid rule.
• Ionian Rebellion: During Daryush I‘s reign, Ionian city-states rebelled against Achaemenid rule, supported by Athens and Eretria. The rebellion was suppressed after five years.
• Battle of Marathon: Daryush I attacked Athens in retaliation but was defeated in the Battle of Marathon.
• Xerexes’ Invasion: Xerexes, Daryush I’s successor, attempted to invade Greece but was also defeated.

1. Long-term Conflict: The prolonged conflict weakened Achaemenid rule, impacting their political and financial stability. A treaty in 449 B.C.E. between the Greek confederacy and the Achaemenids failed to resolve tensions conclusively.
2. Alexander’s Motivation: The Greek sense of challenged self-esteem and confidence in their military strength, as seen in Alexander’s correspondence with Daryush III, inspired his invasion of Persia. Alexander accused Daryush III of past aggressions and aimed to punish the Persians.

By the Way:

• Herodotus’ Historia: Written to trace the history of Greco-Persian wars (500-449 B.C.E.), Herodotus is considered the father of historiography for his systematic, chronological, and evidence-based approach to history writing.
• Anabasis of Alexander: Written by Arrian (1st century C.E.), it details Alexander’s campaigns and his correspondence with Daryush III.

7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and India

• Territorial Expansion: The Achaemenids conquered parts of the Indian subcontinent, including the Kabul basin (Gandhara) under Cyrus II, with the Vitasta (Jhelum) river as the eastern boundary. Their rule extended to Punjab.
• Revenue Contribution: According to Herodotus, the Achaemenid provinces in India contributed 360 talents of gold dust, the highest revenue among all provinces, indicating India’s economic significance.
• Historical Context: This period coincided with the rise of the Magadha Empire in India. The Achaemenid rule in India was later overtaken by Alexander, who conquered these regions after defeating the Achaemenids.

7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of the Iranian Contact

Political Impact:

• Administrative System: The Achaemenids organized conquered regions into satrapies, each governed by a satrap. This system was adopted by Alexander, Scythians, and Kushanas.
• Revenue Collection: The substantial revenue from Indian provinces strengthened the Achaemenid treasury.

Cultural Impact:

• Script Influence: The Aramaic script was introduced in northwest India, leading to the development of the Kharoshthi script, used in Ashokan edicts.
• Royal Edicts: The Achaemenid practice of inscribing edicts at prominent locations influenced Ashoka’s pillar and rock edicts.
• Exploration: Scylax of Karyanda, a Greek sailor, explored the Sindhu River and the Arabian Sea under Daryush I’s orders. His logbook, Periplus of Scylax, was the first Western source of information about India.
• Trade and Architecture: Indian ivory and teakwood were used in Persian palaces (e.g., Susa). After Persepolis was razed by Alexander, Persian and Greek artisans migrated to India, influencing Mauryan art, particularly Ashokan pillars.
• Coinage: The Achaemenids introduced coinage, with Darik (gold) and Siglos (silver) coins issued by Daryush I. The Indian punch-marked coins may have been influenced by Achaemenid coin-making techniques.
• Military Contribution: Indian soldiers from Gandhara, Sindh, and Punjab served in Xerexes’ army, equipped with cane bows, short spears, and cotton clothing.

7.5 Taxila

Historical Significance: Taxila, the capital of Gandhara Mahajanapada, is mentioned in the Mahabharata as the capital of King Takshaka. It is located 30 km from Islamabad, Pakistan, with 18 archaeological sites listed as World Cultural Heritage.

Archaeological Evidence: Evidence of prehistoric microliths and a Neolithic village at Sarai-Khola (circa 3500 B.C.E.) confirms Taxila’s ancient origins.

Educational Hub: Taxila was a major center of learning, described as a “natural university.” It attracted students from across India to study under renowned acharyas. Subjects included:

• Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda)
• Vedangas, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, music, weaponry, poetry, Puranas, and history.

Educational System: There were no formal examinations; learning was tailored to individual capacity, with acharyas determining students’ progress. The administration did not interfere in academic decisions.

Key Figures:

• Chanakya, a native of Taxila, educated Chandragupta Maurya there.
• Ambhi, the king during Alexander’s invasion, welcomed him and offered gifts.

Later Developments: Under Ashoka, Taxila became a center of Buddhist learning. It retained importance despite invasions by Greeks, Shakas, and Kushanas but declined in the 5th century C.E. due to Huna invasions.

By the Way:

• Linguistic Evolution: The Achaemenid inscriptions refer to Indians as Hidush/Hridush. The Greek term Indos/Indoi, used by Scylax and Herodotus, evolved into India. The term Yauna (Greeks) in Achaemenid inscriptions derives from Ionia, reflected in Indian terms like Yona (Prakrit) and Yavana (Sanskrit).

7.6 Advent of Alexander

Context: Alexander invaded India after defeating Daryush III in 331 B.C.E., targeting the weakened Achaemenid territories and small kingdoms in Afghanistan, Sindh, and Punjab. The lack of political unity among Indian rulers facilitated his conquests.

Campaign Timeline:

• 334 B.C.E.: Alexander became king of Macedonia.
• 331 B.C.E.: Defeated Daryush III and marched to Shistan and Kabul.
• 326 B.C.E.: Reached the Hindukush mountains, camping at Nicaea on the Uttarapatha (Grand Trunk Road).

Key Interactions:

• Ambhi (Taxila) and Sisikottas (Shashigupta) surrendered and allied with Alexander.
• Battle of Jhelum: A fierce battle against Porus, who was defeated but impressed Alexander with his valor and elephant warfare. Alexander restored Porus’s kingdom.
• Nysa: A Greek settlement initially resisted but later welcomed Alexander.
• Beas River: Alexander’s troops, exhausted, refused to march further, forcing his retreat.

Administration and Retreat:

• Alexander appointed Porus to govern Punjab, Ambhi for Sindh, and Abhisara for Kashmir. Greek satraps were placed in other regions.
• He defeated tribes like Shibis and Mallas during his return.
• Alexander died in Babylon in 325 B.C.E..

Impact:

• Limited Political Impact: Alexander’s brief rule ended with his death, and Chandragupta Maurya soon established the Mauryan Empire, overshadowing his influence.
• Cultural Impact: Greek historians (e.g., Arrian, Plutarch) documented India, and Greek artisans influenced Mauryan art. The invasion highlighted Indian military skills, particularly Porus’s use of elephants.

For Additional Information:

• Grand Trunk Road (Uttarapatha): A historic trade route from Tamralipti (Bengal) to Taxila, later developed by Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. It was rebuilt by Shershah Sur, Akbar, and the British, and now extends from Bangladesh to Kabul.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Achaemenid Empire: Persian empire founded by Cyrus II, known for its satrapy system and cultural exchanges.
• Royal Road: Trade route connecting Susa to the Mediterranean, with branches to India.
• Apadana: Hypostyle hall in Susa and Persepolis, symbolizing Achaemenid grandeur.
• Kharoshthi Script: Evolved from Aramaic, used in northwest India.
• Periplus of Scylax: Logbook detailing Scylax’s exploration of the Sindhu and Arabian Sea.
• Darik and Siglos: Gold and silver coins issued by Daryush I.
• Taxila: Ancient educational and cultural hub, known as a “natural university.”
• Herodotus: Father of historiography, author of Historia.
• Alexander’s Invasion: Brief but significant campaign in India, with limited long-term political impact.