Notes Class 11 Chapter 4 History Maharashtra Board

Vedic Period

4.1 Vedic Culture: Vedic Literature, Linguistics, and Archaeology

Overview

The Vedic period is a significant phase in Indian history, primarily known through the Vedic literature, which provides insights into the culture, beliefs, and social organization of the Vedic people. The Harappan civilization, previously thought to have been destroyed by foreign invaders, is now understood to have declined due to natural calamities and environmental deterioration. The Vedic culture, often associated with the Aryans, raises questions about their origins-whether they were indigenous to India or migrated from elsewhere.

Key Points

Harappan Decline: Research confirms that the Harappan civilization declined due to natural calamities and environmental issues, not foreign invasions.

Aryan Identity: The origins of the Aryans remain debated-whether they were native to India or migrated from regions like the Arctic (as suggested by Lokmanya Tilak). Archaeological evidence is inconclusive.

Vedic Literature: The primary source of information about Vedic culture, focusing on faith systems, deities, and eulogies. Material culture is mentioned indirectly.

Chronology Debate:

• General consensus: Rigveda was composed around 1500 B.C.E. in India.
• Lokmanya Tilak’s view: Dated to 6000 B.C.E. based on astronomical events, suggesting the Arctic as the Aryan homeland.

Linguistics and Indo-European Languages:

• 16th-century European scholars noted similarities between Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek, leading to the concept of the Indo-European language family.
• Filippo Sassetti (1583), an Italian merchant in Kerala, first observed Sanskrit-Latin similarities, sparking academic interest.
• By the 18th century, this led to the development of Philology, a discipline studying the etymology and meanings of words.

Archaeological and Literary Research:

• The Asiatic Society of Bengal (founded 1784 by Sir William Jones) initiated systematic studies of Vedic literature and translations of Sanskrit texts.
• Assumptions: Vedic people came from the West, bringing advanced warfare techniques (horses, chariots, mounted archery), superior to Harappan methods.
• Harappans were possibly the “Dasyu” (enemies) mentioned in Vedic texts.

Geographical Context:

• Harappan civilization spanned parts of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
• Vedic literature describes the Saptasindhu region (seven rivers: Saraswati/Ghaggar-Hakra, Sindhu, Shatdru/Sutlej, Vipasha/Bias, Asikni/Chenab, Parushni/Ravi, Vitasta/Jhelum, plus Kubha/Kabul, Gomati/Gomal, Suvastu/Swat), called “God’s Country” (Devnirmit Desh).

Debate on Vedic-Harappan Connection:

• No consensus on the chronology or relationship between Vedic and Harappan cultures.
• Mature Harappan phase predates Vedic culture; Late Harappan culture may align with Vedic culture.
• Deciphering the Harappan script could clarify whether Harappans and Vedic people were the same.

4.2 Vedic Literature and Social Organization of Vedic Times

Vedic Literature

Vedic literature, written in Sanskrit, is considered India’s earliest literature, comprising four Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. These texts, along with later Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad texts, were composed over approximately 1500 years.

Rigveda:

• Contains Suktas (hymns) to eulogize deities.
• Verses are called Rucha; multiple Ruchas form a Sukta, and Suktas form a Mandala.

Yajurveda:

• Explains sacrificial rituals, detailing the use of Rigvedic Ruchas as Mantras.
• Combines verse (Rucha) and prose (explanations).

Samaveda:

• Provides rules for reciting mantras musically.
• Fundamental to the development of Indian music.

Atharvaveda:

• Focuses on daily life, including charms, medicines, and norms of statesmanship.

Later Texts:

• Brahmana: Explanations of rituals.
• Aranyaka: Texts for forest-dwelling hermits.
• Upanishads: Philosophical treatises.

Significance: Vedic literature is the primary source for understanding Vedic society, family life, and daily activities.

Social Organization

Varna System:

• Society was divided into four classes: Brahmana (priests), Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishya (traders, farmers), and Shudra (servants).
• First mentioned in the 10th Mandala of Rigveda.
• Initially based on occupation, it later became hereditary, rigidifying into the caste system by the Later Vedic period.

Ashrama System:

• Life was divided into four stages for an ideal lifestyle:
  1. Brahmacharyashram: Austere life focused on education and skill acquisition.
  2. Grihasthashram: Married life, fulfilling duties with a spouse.
  3. Vanaprasthashram: Retirement, advising younger generations, often living away from settlements.
  4. Sanyasashram: Renunciation of family ties, adopting a wandering life without settling permanently.

4.3 The Early Vedic Culture as Unfolded Through Vedic Literature

Overview

The Early Vedic period, associated with the Rigveda, reflects the culture of tribes in the Saptasindhu region. These tribes primarily subsisted on agriculture and animal husbandry, with a focus on deities linked to these activities.

Tribal Structure

• Rigvedic Tribes: Included Puru, Anu, Yadu, Druhyu, Turvash, among others.
• Non-Rigvedic Tribes: Called Das, Dasyu, and Pani, considered enemies (especially Panis, who stole Vedic cattle).
• Dashradnya Yuddha: A battle among ten tribal chiefs mentioned in the Rigveda.
• Settlements: Referred to as Krishtya (related to “Krish,” meaning ploughing), indicating agricultural communities.

Livelihood

Agriculture:

• Emphasized in the 10th Mandala of Rigveda, with the ploughshare as a key tool.
• Main crop: Barley.
• Irrigation: Used well water drawn by a stone wheel with earthen jars (similar to Rahatgadage in Marathi).
• Deities: Ashwins (gods of agriculture, providing plentiful food) and Indra (Lord of Urvara, cultivable land).

Animal Husbandry:

• Included cattle, buffaloes, and horses.
• Pushan: God protecting animals.

Artisans:

• Rathakara (chariot makers) and Takshan (carpenters): Made chariots, wooden utensils, and ritual equipment.
• Kulal (potter): First mentioned in Yajurveda; terms like Ukha (cooking pot), patra, kumbha, kalash used.
• Vayya/Vayyaa (weaver): Terms like Tantum (warp), Otum (weft), Tasar (shuttle) indicate textile production; wool (Urna) was used, but not cotton or silk.
• Charmnma (leatherworker): Made leather objects.
• Karmar (metalworker): Worked with gold (hiranya), copper, bronze, or iron (ayas; iron was rare).

Transport and Trade:

• Chariot: Used for transport; cart called Anas.
• River Transport: Called Navya; boats with hundred oars (Aritram) mentioned.
• Deities: Pushan (land routes), Varuna and Ashwins (water routes).
• Trade: Conducted via barter; Nishka (gold ornament) occasionally used as currency.

Cultural Notes

• The Rigveda’s description of Varuna’s palace with 1000 doors is allegorical, not supported by archaeological evidence.
• The Varna system was established by the end of the Early Vedic period (10th Mandala).

4.4 Later Vedic Period

Overview

Dated to 1000-600 B.C.E., the Later Vedic period is known through treatises, the epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), and archaeological evidence. It marks the eastward migration of Vedic people and the formation of larger political units.

Key Features

Migration:

• Vedic people moved from Saptasindhu eastward to the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and southward to the Vindhya mountains.
• Routes: Uttarapath (northern route from Central Asia to Ganga-Yamuna Doab) and Dakshinapath (southern route from Sindh to the Deccan Plateau).
• Story of Videgha Mathava (Shatapatha Brahmana): Illustrates settlement and cultivation from west to east.

Political Organization:

• Formation of Janapadas: Confederacies of Vedic villages, governed by seniors and elites (oligarchic).
• Emergence of Mahajanapadas: Powerful Janapadas that expanded into larger states.

Material Culture:

• Reflected in epics and archaeological findings, indicating advancements in settlement and agriculture.

Additional Notes

• Some scholars suggest Late Harappans (Vedic people) migrated due to adverse climatic conditions, moving eastward (Ganga-Yamuna Doab) and westward (Iran, Iraq, Egypt).
• Evidence: Boghazkui inscriptions (Iraq) mention a treaty between Hittite and Mittanni tribes, invoking Vedic deities (Indra, Varuna, Nasatya), supporting the theory of westward migration.
• The riddle of Aryan origins remains unsolved due to inconclusive archaeological and literary evidence.