Chalcolithic Villages in India
3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India
Overview of the Chalcolithic Period
- The Chalcolithic period in India emerged after the collapse of the Mature (urban) Harappan civilization.
- Late Harappan people, who settled on the ruins of Harappan cities, migrated elsewhere due to the loss of urban architecture and town planning.
- This migration led to the formation of new rural cultures known as Chalcolithic cultures, characterized by the use of both copper and stone tools, though copper was used sparingly.
Transition from Harappan to Late Harappan Cultures
- The Mature Harappan civilization featured advanced architecture, wheel-made pottery, and cultivation of wheat and barley.
- Late Harappan settlements lacked the sophistication of Mature Harappan cities.
- Burial pots from Cemetery H at Harappa show unique designs (e.g., sun, moon, fish, deer, peacock), differing from Mature Harappan pottery. One pot depicts dead humans carried by peacocks in their stomachs.
- Characteristics of Late Harappan culture suggest a distinct evolution, possibly influenced by migration or cultural shifts.
Theories on Late Harappans
- Some archaeologists propose that Late Harappans were Vedic Aryans, while others believe they were successors of the Mature Harappan people.
- Further research is needed to confirm their identity.
Pre-Harappan Context
- Neolithic villages preceded Harappan cities, with people skilled in copper object-making and pottery.
- Technological advancements from the Neolithic period contributed to the rise of Harappan urban centers.
- Late Harappans spread their knowledge (e.g., wheel-made pottery, agriculture, copper tools) to local populations, leading to regional Chalcolithic cultures.
Regional Chalcolithic Cultures in India
- Chalcolithic sites are found in Rajasthan, the Ganga Valley, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
- Each region developed unique cultural traits, influenced by local conditions and Harappan interactions.
3.1.1 Rajasthan
Ahar or Banas Culture
Location and Timeline: Centered in the Mewad region, contemporary with the Harappan civilization (dated to 4000 B.C.E.).
Key Sites: Balathal and Gilund near Udaipur; Ahar (namesake site on the Banas River tributary).
Characteristics:
- Balathal was a mass production center for pottery, supplying black-and-red ware to other settlements.
- Pottery features red interiors/upper necks and black lower bodies, achieved through specific baking techniques (e.g., using husk or hay).
- Artefacts include terracotta bull figurines, chank shell objects, stone blades, chisels, arrowheads, and copper tools.
- Houses were built with baked bricks using the English bond method (alternating headers and stretchers).
- Fortification walls suggest defense needs.
Copper Connection: Obtained copper from Khetri mines, mastered smelting, and likely supplied Harappans with copper objects.
Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture
- Location and Timeline: Near Khetri copper mines, predating the Harappan civilization.
- Findings: Copper artefacts (arrowheads, spearheads, harpoons, bangles, chisels) and pottery.
- Significance: Supplied copper objects to the Harappans, indicating early trade networks.
3.1.2 The Ganga Valley
Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) and Copper Hoards
Distribution: Found in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and western Uttar Pradesh; initially discovered in riverbeds.
Characteristics:
- Potsherds are worn, rounded, and brittle due to water exposure.
- House floors were rammed earth with hearths, terracotta male/bull figurines, and remains of cattle bones, rice, and barley.
Timeline: Dated to 3000 B.C.E. in Rajasthan and 2000 B.C.E. in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
Copper Hoards: Found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh; include harpoons, axe heads, and rings, showcasing skilled craftsmanship.
Cultural Debate:
- Some link OCP and copper hoards to migrating Harappans post-decline.
- Others associate them with Vedic Aryans or an independent culture, given their proximity.
3.1.3 Bihar, Bengal, Odisha
- Findings: Copper hoards present, but OCP absent.
- Sites: Chirand, Sonpur yielded black-and-red ware pottery similar to Harappan shapes (bowls, troughs).
- Influence: Suggests Harappan migration or cultural influence extended to these regions.
3.1.4 Madhya Pradesh
Kayatha Culture
- Location and Timeline: On the Chhoti Kali Sindh River, 25 km from Ujjain, contemporary with Harappans.
- Livelihood: Subsisted on agriculture and animal husbandry.
- Artefacts: Handmade pots, microliths, copper axes, bangles, necklaces (semi-precious stone and steatite beads).
- Contact: Early interaction with Harappans, predating Harappan urban rise; co-existed briefly with Ahar culture.
Malwa Culture
Location and Timeline: Originated in Malwa region (1800-1200 B.C.E.), spread to Maharashtra by 1600 B.C.E.
Key Sites: Navadatoli (opposite Maheshwar on the Narmada), Eran, Nagda.
Characteristics:
- Farmers and animal husbanders, using buff pottery with brown designs.
- Settlements had protective walls.
Significance: First farmers of Maharashtra, influencing the Jorwe culture.
3.1.5 Gujarat
- Phases: Coincides with Early Harappan (3950-2600 B.C.E.), Mature Harappan (2600-1900 B.C.E.), and Post-Harappan (1900-900 B.C.E.).
- Livelihood: Primarily pastoral (animal husbandry), some semi-nomadic; significant bead-making industry using semi-precious stones.
- Geographical Spread: Kutch, Saurashtra, northern and southern Gujarat.
- Post-Harappan Cultures: Prabhas (south Gujarat) and Rangpur (northeast Gujarat), lasting until 1800-1200 B.C.E.
- Pottery: Regional variations; similar to Late Harappan in color, shape, and design.
- Cultural Contact: Evidence of Harappan trade (bead industry) and influence; Kutch-Saurashtra villages abandoned by 1900 B.C.E.
3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra
Overview
- Evidence of Late Harappans found at Daimabad.
- Pre-Late Harappan culture: Savalda; succeeding cultures: Malwa and Jorwe.
Savalda Culture
Location and Timeline: Dhule district, on the Tapi River (2000-1800 B.C.E.).
Origins: Resulted from contact between Mesolithic people of northern Maharashtra and Harappans of Saurashtra.
Characteristics:
- Used wheel-made pottery with designs (arrowheads, harpoons, animal figures).
- Artefacts include copper objects, siliceous stone beads, bone arrowheads, and mortar/pestle stones.
- Villages had mud houses with rammed mud/alluvium floors and surrounding walls.
Trade: Evidence at Kaothe (chank shell artefacts) suggests trade with Saurashtra Harappans.
Malwa and Jorwe Cultures
Malwa Culture in Maharashtra:
- Arrived around 1600 B.C.E., establishing permanent farming villages.
- Contact with Karnataka Neolithic people influenced pottery shapes and designs.
Jorwe Culture:
- Emerged post-Malwa, first traced at Jorwe (Ahmednagar district).
- Spread across Tapi, Godavari, and Bhima basins.
- Key Sites:
- Large centers: Daimabad, Prakashe, Inamgaon.
- Smaller settlements: Nevase, Songaon, Chandoli, Pimpaldar.
- Farmsteads: Walki.
- Inamgaon (Pune District):
- Chronology: Malwa (1600-1400 B.C.E.), Early Jorwe (1400-1000 B.C.E.), Late Jorwe (1000-700 B.C.E.).
- Early Jorwe was the flourishing phase; Late Jorwe saw decline due to arid climate.
- Houses: Spacious, rectangular (wattle-and-daub) in Malwa phase; round huts in Late Jorwe (nomadic adaptation).
- Storage: Round platforms, flat stones for jars, underground silos with lime plaster.
- Irrigation: Canal for floodwater storage, controlled by the village chief (resided in a five-roomed house).
- Diet: Wheat, barley, sorghum, lentils, horse gram, meat, fish.
- Artefacts: Colorful stone beads, microliths, copper objects.
- Burials: Extended position in pits; chief’s burial in a four-legged jar; symbolic/child burials in globular jars.
- Pottery:
- Malwa: Buff with brown designs.
- Jorwe: Red with black designs (spouted pots, carinated bowls, jars); undecorated in Late Jorwe.
- Kilns: Round, larger in Early Jorwe; ground-baked in Late Jorwe.
3.3 Megalithic Period in India
Overview
- Around 700 B.C.E., Jorwe sites like Inamgaon were abandoned, marking the end of Chalcolithic culture in Maharashtra.
- Nomadic people introduced megaliths (stone circles) using huge rock slabs for burials and memorials.
- Timeline: 1500-500 B.C.E. in India; 1000-400 B.C.E. in Maharashtra (Iron Age).
Distribution and Practices
Global presence since prehistoric times; practiced today by tribes like Bodos, Todas, Kurumbas, Nagas, and Khasis.
In Maharashtra (Vidarbha region: Nagpur, Chandrapur, Bhandara), sites include Takalghat, Mahurzari, Khapa, Naikund.
Characteristics:
- Located on ancient trade routes; rare artisan settlements.
- Nomadic artisans skilled in iron object-making (furnace found at Naikund).
- Used horses (skeletal remains, copper ornaments in burials).
- Pottery: Black-and-red ware.
Significance: Introduced the Iron Age to ancient India.
Key Points for Revision
- Chalcolithic Definition: Use of copper and stone tools.
- Harappan Legacy: Migration led to diverse Chalcolithic cultures.
- Regional Variations: Unique pottery, architecture, and livelihoods.
- Megalithic Transition: Shift from Chalcolithic to Iron Age with nomadic influences.
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