Notes Class 11 Chapter 14 History Maharashtra Board

Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom

Introduction

The transition from the ancient to the medieval period in India was marked by significant changes in political, social, economic, religious, and cultural spheres. This period saw the continuation of some ancient traditions alongside the emergence of new ones, with no clear demarcation between eras due to regional and temporal variations. The medieval period is roughly divided into Early, Medieval, and Modern periods, with the Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar, and Bahamani kingdoms playing pivotal roles in shaping medieval India.

14.1 Political Conditions in India

Overview: The medieval period saw the persistence of some ancient royal dynasties and the rise of new ones. Political instability, marked by constant power struggles, characterized North India after the decline of Harshavardhan’s empire.

Chola Empire: In South India, the Chola kingdom expanded into an empire under King Vijayalaya, who defeated rivals like the Pandyas and Pallavas, extending Chola boundaries.

North Indian Kingdoms: After Harshavardhan’s empire, numerous small kingdoms emerged, including:

Chauhans of Rajasthan
Pratiharas and Gadhwals (Rathod) of Kanauj
Chandellas of Bundelkhand
Parmars of Malwa
Kalachuris of Gorakhpur and Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh)
Chalukyas (Solanki) of Gujarat
Palas of Bengal

Political Instability: These kingdoms were engaged in constant conflicts, lacking a centralized authority to unify them. This disunity made them vulnerable to external invasions.

Turkish Invasions: In the 13th century, Turkish invaders exploited India’s political fragmentation, easily defeating individual rulers who failed to unite against them.

14.2 Arab and Turkish Invasions

Arab Invasion:

Muhammad bin Qasim: In 712 C.E., he led the Ummayad dynasty’s conquest of Sindh and Multan. However, Arab rule in India became unstable after his campaigns, limiting further expansion.

Turkish Invasions:

Sultan Sabuktigin of Ghazni: In the 11th century, he attacked King Jaipal of Punjab, whose kingdom spanned from the Hindukush mountains to the river Chenab.
Mahmud of Ghazni: Sabuktigin’s son, Mahmud, invaded India 17 times between 1001 and 1018 C.E., aiming to loot wealth and spread Islam. His invasions caused significant destruction and wealth extraction.
Muhammad Ghuri: In the late 12th century, Ghuri’s invasions aimed not only to plunder but also to establish a Turkish empire in India. He defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain, paving the way for Turkish dominance from Sindh to Bengal.

Reasons for Turkish Success:

Internal dissent among Indian rulers.
Lack of centralized power and unity.
Absence of a standing army.
Aggressive and cruel war strategies of the Turks.

Establishment of Delhi Sultanate:

Muhammad Ghuri appointed Qutubuddin Aibak, his slave, to govern Delhi. After Ghuri’s death, Aibak became the first Sultan of Delhi, founding the Slave Dynasty.

Additional Information: Khyber Pass

A critical route connecting Afghanistan and Pakistan, used for trade and invasions.
Historical invaders like Darius, Alexander, Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, Nadir Shah, and Ahmed Shah Abdali entered India via this pass.
In the 20th century, the British built a 52-km railway line to Jamrud, near Peshawar, with 34 tunnels and 92 bridges.

14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Devgiri

Slave Dynasty:

Iltutmish: Succeeded Qutubuddin Aibak and trained his daughter Razia in state affairs.
Razia Sultan: The first and only female Sultan of Delhi, she was a capable ruler who led military campaigns and focused on public welfare.
Balban: An important Sultan who strengthened the Slave Dynasty.

Khalji Dynasty:

Alauddin Khalji’s Invasion of Devgiri (1296 C.E.):
- Context: Devgiri, a prosperous city in South India, was ruled by King Ramadevarai Yadava.
- Invasion: Alauddin launched a sudden attack, forcing Ramadevarai to take shelter in the Devgiri fort (Daulatabad). Alauddin seized the fort, plundered the city, and caused a food shortage in the fort.
- Outcome: Ramadevarai signed a treaty, ceding wealth and nearby provinces to Alauddin.
Second Campaign (1312 C.E.):
- Reason: Ramadevarai stopped paying tribute to Alauddin.
- Action: Alauddin sent his commander, Malik Kafur, to subdue the Yadavas and collect tribute.
- Purpose: To maintain control over the South, fund his large standing army, and offset the financial strain from economic reforms like market price controls.

Alauddin’s Innovations:

Established the first large-scale permanent standing army.
Introduced economic reforms to control market prices, which strained the treasury.

Tughluq Dynasty:

Muhammad-bin-Tughluq: Known for controversial policies:
- Shifted the capital from Delhi to Devgiri (Daulatabad) and back, causing unrest due to poor planning and logistical issues.
- Introduced copper coins, a novel but poorly implemented policy that disrupted trade and reduced the Sultanate’s prestige.
Taimur’s Invasion: The Mongol ruler Taimur invaded India during Naseeruddin Mahmood’s reign, ending the Tughluq dynasty by capturing Punjab and Delhi.

Later Dynasties:

Sayyed and Lodi Dynasties: Followed the Tughluqs. Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultan, was defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526 C.E.), marking the end of the Sultanate and the start of the Mughal period.

14.4 Trade and Commerce

Agriculture: The primary occupation, with agricultural revenue as the main income source.

Textile Industry:

Flourished in centers like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Banaras, Patna, Khambayat, Burhanpur, and Devgiri.
Exported cotton cloth, muslin, linen, satin, and jari cloth from Bengal and Gujarat.
Textile dyeing gained prominence in Golconda, Ahmedabad, and Dhaka.
Amir Khusrow described Dhaka’s muslin as so fine that 100 yards could pass through a needle’s hole without being pierced by it.

Other Industries:

Metal, sugar, and leather industries thrived.
Paper manufacturing began, using rags and tree barks, in regions like Kashmir, Siyalkot, Delhi, Gaya, Bihar, Bengal, and Gujarat.

Trade Networks:

Internal Trade: Weekly markets (Bazaar) and market places (Mandi/Mandai) facilitated trade, with new trade centers (Peth) emerging.
External Trade: Goods like cotton cloth, muslin, dyed cloth, scented oils, indigo, sugar, cotton, and dry ginger were exported to Iran, Arabia, and China via land, river, and sea routes from ports like Delhi, Multan, Jaunpur, Banaras, Agra, and Patna.
Imports included horses (Iraq, Turkey, Iran), semi-precious stones, mercury, lead, alum, saffron, and metals like gold and silver (Mecca, Aden).

Coinage System:

Coins featured the names of the Khalifa and Sultan, with details like minting year and place in Arabic script.
The ‘Tola’ became the standard unit for coin weight.
Alauddin Khalji standardized prices for commodities, including grains, vegetables, fruits, slaves, and horses, to regulate markets during famines, often at the expense of farmers.

14.5 Urbanisation

Factors Driving Urbanisation:

Political and economic development, influenced by rulers’ policies.
Trade growth, as noted by Arab historian Ibn Khaldun, due to conducive governance.

Key Developments:

Delhi emerged as the Sultanate’s capital by the late 13th century.
Alauddin Khalji built the city of Siri.
The Tughluq dynasty established Tughluqabad, Jahanpanha, and Firozabad.
The Sayyed and Lodi dynasties made Agra their capital.

Impact:

Increased trade, transport, and communication led to the growth of small and large cities.
Cities served as administrative or industrial hubs, depending on their strategic importance.

14.6 Art, Architecture, Literature, and Social Life

Art and Music:

Razia Sultan: Encouraged musicians and singers with awards.
Balban: A musician himself, he blended Iranian and Indian music to create new ragas.
Amir Khusrow and Amir Khas: Prominent poets and musicians in Balban’s court.
Sufi Contribution: Sufi saints, like followers of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, popularized Qawwali as a vocal music form.
Hussain Shah Sharukhi: Developed the Khayal style of vocal music.

Architecture:

The Sultanate period introduced Indo-Islamic architecture, blending Iranian and Indian styles.
Qutubuddin Aibak: Initiated this style with the Quwwat-i-Islam mosque and began constructing the Qutub Minar at Mehrauli, completed by Iltutmish.
Alauddin Khalji: Built the Alai Darwaza and Jamalkhan mosque near Qutub Minar.
Firoz Shah Tughluq: Constructed Fatehabad, Hisaf-i-Firuz, forts, bridges, dharamshalas, and canals, known for simple yet grand structures.

Literature:

Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian and Arabic (e.g., Al-Beruni translated Sanskrit works into Arabic).
Scholars from Syria, Arabia, and Iran visited India, contributing to literary activities.
Notable historians included Hasan Nizami, Ziauddin Barani, and Afif Yahya.
The Persian, Arabic, and Turkish languages led to the emergence of Urdu in South India.

Social Life:

Muslim society included Turks, Ulemas, Mughals, Arabs, and Indian Muslims, with most Sultans being Turks or Pathans.
A new class of Amirs and Umravs (nobility) emerged.
Education expanded with the establishment of Maktabas (primary schools) and Madarasas.

14.7 Vijayanagar Empire

Foundation:

Established in 1336 C.E. by Harihara and Bukka after Alauddin Khalji’s invasions weakened South Indian rulers.

Expansion:

Under Krishnadevaraya, the empire expanded from South Konkan to Vishakhapatnam and from the Krishna River to Kanyakumari.
Krishnadevaraya authored Amuktamalyada, a text on statecraft and policy.

Accounts:

Travellers like Nicolo Conti (Italian) and Abdul Razzaq (Persian) provided detailed accounts of Vijayanagar’s prosperity and governance.

Significance:

Posed a significant challenge to the Delhi Sultanate’s dominance in the South.

14.8 Bahamani Kingdom