Notes Class 11 Chapter 13 History Maharashtra Board

India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

13.1 India and Sri Lanka

Historical Context and Sources

The historical relationship between India and Sri Lanka has been closely intertwined since ancient times.
Key sources include the Vamsagranthas: Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa, and Chullavamsa. These texts document the dynasties, mutual relations, and historical events of India and Sri Lanka, spanning the pre- and post-Buddha eras.

Establishment of the First Kingdom

The first kingdom in Sri Lanka, Tambapanni (Tamrapanni), also known as Rajrat, was established in the 6th century C.E.
Greek historians referred to it as Taprobane.
According to tradition, King Vijaya, a prince from the Vang Kalinga kingdom in India, founded this kingdom. His journey took him from Vang Kalinga to Supparaka (Sopara) on India’s west coast, and then to Sri Lanka.

Spread of Buddhism

Thera Mahinda (Mahendra), son of Emperor Ashoka, arrived at Mihinthale near Anuradhapura, the capital of Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
He initiated King Devanampiya Tissa into Buddhism through pabbajja/pravrajya (ordination), an event detailed in the Vamsagranthas.
Following Mahinda’s sermon, King Devanampiya Tissa and his subjects embraced Buddhism.
Anula, the wife of the king’s younger brother, expressed her desire to become a Bhikkhuni (Buddhist nun). Thera Mahinda invited his sister, Theri Sanghamitta (Sanghamitra), from India to facilitate this.
Theri Sanghamitta arrived in Sri Lanka with a branch of the Bodhi tree, welcomed by King Devanampiya Tissa. She initiated Anula into the Buddhist Sangha, establishing the first Bhikkhuni Shasan (Bhikkhuni Sangha) in Sri Lanka.
The Unduvapa Poya festival, celebrated annually on the full moon in December, commemorates Theri Sanghamitta’s arrival.

Important Cultural Sites

Anuradhapura – Mihinthale:

Mihinthale, near Anuradhapura, was a key center where Thera Mahinda and Theri Sanghamitta stayed, facilitating the spread of Buddhism.
Kantakchetiya, one of the earliest stupas at Mihinthale, has an inscription indicating that revenue from a nearby tank and surrounding land was reserved for its maintenance.
The Ambasthal Thupa stupa was erected over the remains of Thera Mahinda.

Thuparama:

Built by King Devanampiya Tissa in Anuradhapura, it houses relics of Gautama Buddha and is the earliest extant stupa in Sri Lanka.

Mahavihara:

Indian philosopher Buddhaghosa stayed here and wrote Vishuddhimagga, a text considered equivalent to the Tipitaka in importance.

Pulatthinagar (Polannaruwa):

Mentioned in Chullavamsa, Polannaruwa was renamed Jananathmangalam by Chola emperor Rajraja I after he razed Anuradhapura in the 10th century C.E. and established his capital there.
Rajraja I built two Shiva temples, the oldest Hindu temples in Sri Lanka.
Vijayabahu ended Chola supremacy, and his descendant Parakramabahu (12th century C.E.) reorganized disrupted Buddhist sanghas under Mahathera Kassap‘s guidance.
Parakramabahu defeated the Ruhuna kingdom, which held a tooth relic (dantdhatu) of Gautama Buddha. This relic was later enshrined by King Nissanka Malla in a temple in Polannaruwa.
The temple features a Moonstone (Chandrashila), a semicircular step with carvings of swans, elephants, horses, and creepers, characteristic of Sri Lankan stupa architecture.
Galapotha, an 8.17m x 1.39m stone slab, records Nissanka Malla’s reign and achievements, with a carved Gajalakshmi image.

Sri Dalad Maligava:

Located in Kandy, this temple houses the tooth relic and is a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site.

Dambulla and Sigiriya:

Dambulla caves, a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site, contain images of Gautama Buddha and Bodhisattvas, with painted roofs in five caves.
Sigiriya, named after a lion image carved at the entrance of a fort and palace on a rock, features murals comparable to those at Ajanta in India.

Cultural and Linguistic Influence

Inscriptions in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century B.C.E. to 1st century C.E. use the Ashokan Brahmi script, from which the modern Sinhala script evolved.
The Buddhist text Lalitvistar lists 64 Indian scripts, including Brahmi, which influenced scripts in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

13.2 India and Southeast Asia

Historical Context

Indian literature provides limited references to Indian settlements in Southeast Asia, but Chinese court records offer substantial information.
Ancient Indian texts refer to Southeast Asia as Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold).
The term Southeast Asia was coined during World War II, encompassing Mainland (Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, western Malaysia) and Maritime (Malaya peninsula, eastern Malaysia, Indonesia) regions.

Trade and Cultural Exchange

Trading relations between India and Southeast Asia began in the 1st century B.C.E. and continued through the 1st century C.E.
The Strait of Malacca was a key route for Indian merchants, who transported goods across the Malaya Peninsula by land to avoid coastal navigation.
Trade flourished under the Chola kings by the end of the 10th century C.E.
From the 2nd century B.C.E. to 2nd century C.E., Indian merchants, accompanied by priests, monks, and adventurers, spread Indian culture, establishing independent kingdoms in Southeast Asia.

Myanmar

Known historically as Brahmdesh, Myanmar shares a border with northeast India.

In the 2nd century B.C.E., Pyu city-states like Halin, Beikthano, and Shrikshetra emerged. Shrikshetra, near modern Pyay, was the largest, reportedly founded by members of the Shakya clan.

The Pagan Empire, established in the 1st century C.E., unified Myanmar under King Anawrahta in the 11th century C.E., giving it a national identity.

Anawrahta revived Theravada Buddhism and checked the expansion of the Khmer Empire.

Key sites:

Shwedagon Pagoda (6th-10th century C.E., Yangon), built to house eight hairs of Gautama Buddha, is a gold-covered example of Myanmar’s stupa architecture.
Anand Temple (11th century C.E.), built under Emperor Kyanzittha, blends Indian and Pagan architectural styles.
Archaeological sites at Halin, Beikthano, and Shrikshetra, now UNESCO World Cultural Heritage sites, reveal stupas, fortifications, and water management structures.

Thailand

Historically called Mueng Thai or Siam, Thailand was renamed in the 20th century.
From the 6th to 11th centuries, the Mon people ruled the Dvaravati kingdom, introducing Indian traditions in sculpture, literature, ethics, and judicial science.
Dvaravati’s cultural contributions influenced writing, arts, administration, and religion across Southeast Asia.
Archaeological remains near Lop Buri and Ayuttha include Dvaravati-style temples and sculptures, primarily Buddha images, with some Shivalingas and Vishnu statues.
The Ayuttha kingdom (14th century C.E.) adopted Indian naming conventions, with kings prefixed by Ram due to the popularity of the Ramayana.
The Thai Ramayana, Ramakien, is a cornerstone of Thai art, influencing sculpture, music, dance, and theatre.

Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia (Indo-China)

During the colonial period, these countries were collectively known as Indo-China.

Vietnam

Funan (Mekong Delta, 3rd century C.E.):

Known through Chinese records, Funan was a fortified city with a well-established revenue system, laws, and artisans.
Excavations by French archaeologist Louis Malleret uncovered brick temples, jewellery workshops, and Roman coins from the 2nd century C.E.

Champa (4th-14th century C.E.):

A coastal kingdom named after the Cham tribe, with cities like Indrapur, Amaravati, and Vijay (capital).
Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script document Shiva temples in My Son Valley, a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site with over 70 temples.
The Bhadreshvara temple is notable, and the site’s Meru Parvata-inspired architecture reflects Indian influence.

Laos

A landlocked country with a population primarily of Lao people, the kingdom of Lao Sang existed from the 14th to 18th centuries.
Attacked by Thailand in the 19th century, it later came under French control.
Buddhism is the dominant religion, with cultural expressions influenced by Ramayana and Gautama Buddha’s life, seen in sculptures and performing arts like the San Sinxay epic.

Cambodia

Known as Kambujadesha, its history is documented in Sanskrit and Khmer inscriptions.
The Chenla kingdom, established by Jayavarman II in 802 C.E., evolved into the Khmer Empire, which spanned Vietnam, Myanmar, and parts of China.
Suryavarman II (11th century) built the Angkorwat Temple in Yashodharpura, a 500-acre Vishnu temple with a 200-meter moat and a notable Samudramanthan panel. It is a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site.
Jayavarman VII, a Buddhist, built Angkorthom, with the Bayon Temple at its center, representing Mount Meru and the Samudramanthana myth. The city’s gates feature shikharas with smiling stone faces.
The Khmer Empire declined after Jayavarman VII and collapsed in the 15th century C.E.

Malaysia and Indonesia

The Vayu Purana refers to the Malay Peninsula as Malaydvipa, mentioned by Chinese Bhikkhu I-Tsing as Malayu and by Ptolemy as Golden Chersonese.
The Chola king Rajendra conquered Malayu, as noted in Tanjore’s Brihadishvara temple inscription.

Key Kingdoms

Srivijaya:

Originating in Sumatra, it became a dominant kingdom, absorbing weaker neighbors like Malayu.
Weakened by Chola invasions in the 11th century C.E., it was succeeded by the Malaya Sultanate under Parameswaran (Eskandar Shah) in the 14th century C.E.
I-Tsing noted over a thousand Buddhist Bhikkhus studying Sanskrit in Srivijaya.

Majapahit (13th century C.E., Eastern Java):

Founded by King Vijaya, it resisted Kublai Khan and expanded into an empire across Java, Bali, and other islands.
Indian epics influenced its culture, but it declined with the rise of Islamic states in the 15th-16th centuries.

Shailendra (8th-9th centuries):

Buddhist kings built the Borobudur Stupa, a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site, reflecting Buddhist philosophy with its Kamdhatu, Roopdhatu, and Aroopdhatu planes.
Hindu temples on the Dieng Plateau were also constructed.

Mataram:

Contemporary to Shailendra, founded by King Sanjaya, it translated Mahabharata and Harivamsha into Javanese.
Poems in Shardulvikridita meters, called Kakvin, were composed.
The Wayang shadow puppetry, using leather or wood cut-outs, depicts Mahabharata and Ramayana stories.

Prambanan Temples

A group of Shaivaite and Jaina temples in Indonesia, with the main temple Candi Prambanan (dedicated to Shiva) built by King Daksha.
Features a beautiful Durga image, locally called Lara/Rara Jonggrang, and is a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site.