India, Nations in the northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China
12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in Ancient Times
Overview
This chapter explores the profound impact of Indian culture on regions beyond its borders, particularly through trade and the spread of Buddhism. Indian travelers and migrants engaged in cultural exchanges without imposing their religion, culture, or political systems, leading to mutual enrichment of native cultures.
Key Features of Indian Cultural Exchange
- Non-Impositional Approach: Indians who traveled or migrated to other regions integrated with local populations, fostering cultural exchanges rather than dominance.
- Buddhist Influence: The spread of Buddhism was a primary vehicle for Indian cultural influence, especially in regions beyond the Hindukush mountains.
Ancient Indian Trade
Literary Sources: Texts like Kathasaritsagara, Jataka Stories, Deepvamsa, and Mahavamsa narrate stories of Indian merchants’ sea voyages and trade adventures.
Sangham Literature: Mentions Yavana (Greek) traders who brought gold and took black pepper in exchange.
Inscriptions: Inscriptions in western Maharashtra record donations by Yavanas, indicating their presence and integration.
Port Cities:
- Sopara (near Mumbai) is possibly referred to as ‘Ophir’ in the Old Testament.
- Other significant ports included Bharuch, Kalyan, and Sopara, noted in the Periplus of Erythrean Sea.
Trade Commodities:
- Exports: Teakwood, Himalayan cedar, sandalwood, ivory, tortoise shells, monkeys, peacocks, pearls, precious stones, black pepper, cinnamon, and incense.
- Imports: Roman goods like lead, zinc, corals, wines, and olive oil.
Key Texts on Trade:
- Periplus of Erythrean Sea: A sailor’s handbook detailing ports like Bharuch, Sopara, and trade centers like Ujjain.
- Geographia (Strabo and Claudius Ptolemy), Naturalis Historia (Pliny the Elder), and Indica (Arrian) provide insights into Indo-Roman trade.
- Indica by Megasthenes (used by Arrian) describes India but was not based on personal visits.
Indo-Roman Trade
Timeline: Flourished in the 1st century C.E., facilitated by the Silk Route and ports on India’s south and west coasts.
Hippalus: A Greek navigator who accurately mapped ports on the Erythrean Sea.
Roman Gold Coins:
- Found in Tamilnadu hoards, often cut for assaying (checking gold purity), indicating they were valued as gold rather than currency.
- Pliny the Elder noted the drain of Roman gold to India, comparing India to a “sink” for gold.
- Nero reportedly paid one million gold coins for an Indian emerald chalice.
Roman Imports: Amphorae (for olive oil and wine), found in archaeological surveys near Bet Dwaraka, Gujarat (2000-2001).
Indian Exports to Rome: Snakes, hunting dogs, tigers, elephants, parrots, peacocks, rhinoceros hides, horns, textiles, pearls, ivory, and spices.
Trading Centers in Maharashtra: Paithan, Ter, Kolhapur (referred to as ‘Hippokura’ by Ptolemy), and Bhokardan.
Maritime Practices
- Dishakak Crows: Ancient sailors used trained crows (Dishakak) to locate land, as they flew toward the coast when it was in sight. This is depicted in a Harappan terracotta tablet and the Baveru Jataka story, which also confirms trade with Babylon (Baveru).
12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan and Pakistan)
Geographical and Cultural Context
- Gandhara’s Strategic Location: Situated on the trade route linking India and Central Asia, Gandhara (modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan) had close cultural ties with India from the Janapada period until the advent of Islam.
- Passage Point: Used by Central Asian invaders, Ashoka’s Buddhist monks, and Chinese pilgrims traveling to India.
Emperor Ashoka’s Period
Ashoka’s Influence:
- The 13th edict mentions Greek kings, including those in Kamboja (Afghanistan), adopting Ashoka’s Dhammavijaya (path of morality).
- An edict at Kandahar, written in Greek and Aramaic, indicates Afghanistan’s integration into Ashoka’s empire.
Missionaries: Ashoka sent Thera Mahyantika to Kashmir and Afghanistan and Thera Maharakkhita to Greek kingdoms to spread Buddhism.
Kushana Period (Emperor Kanishka and Post-Kushana)
Kanishka’s Empire: Extended from Pataliputra to Kashmir, Central Asia, and included Purushspur (Peshawar), Mathura, and Kapisha (Begram) as capitals.
Silk Route Control: The Kushanas controlled the trade route from Taxila to China via the Khyber Pass, Bamiyan, and the Pamir plateau.
Buddhist Expansion: Buddhism reached China during this period, with Kanishka’s coins bearing Gautama Buddha’s image and the legend ‘Boddo’, the earliest numismatic depiction of Buddha.
Archaeological Sites:
- Shahji-ki-Dheri (near Peshawar): Excavations revealed Kanishka’s Stupa, built during his reign, containing a box (karandaka) with Gautama Buddha’s remains and an inscription mentioning Agnishala, the supervisor of the Kanishka Vihara. The box is now in the Peshawar Museum.
- Hadda (Nagarhar): Near Jalalabad, Afghanistan, this site has stupas and viharas with Gandhara-style sculptures.
- Takht-i-Bahi: A World Cultural Heritage site in Pakistan’s Pakhtunkhwa province, featuring a vihara complex built from the 1st to 7th centuries C.E., with three stupas and other structures.
Bamiyan Buddhas:
- Located 250 km west of Kabul, Bamiyan has 750 caves with Buddhist murals and two giant Buddha statues (53m and 38m) carved into a cliff.
- Constructed with a sandstone core, plastered with mud and straw, and decorated with gold and precious stones, they were described by Chinese monk Yuan Chwang.
- Destroyed by the Taliban in 2001, restoration efforts by UNESCO and countries like Japan, France, and Switzerland have rediscovered murals and a 19m Mahaparinibbana Buddha image.
- Yuan Chwang noted a library of rare Buddhist manuscripts at Bamiyan, with some birch bark and palm leaf manuscripts found in a vihara.
Hindu Cultural Traces
- Ganesha Image: A 4th-century C.E. Ganesha image near Kabul, the earliest known, predating similar images in India.
- Khair Khana Temple: Near Kabul, excavations revealed an image of Surya on a chariot, indicating Hindu influence.
Cultural Significance
The Buddhist and Hindu remains in Gandhara confirm strong cultural ties with India before Islam, driven by trade, religion, and artistic exchanges.
12.3 India and China
The Silk Route
Definition: Named by German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen, the Silk Route spans over 6,000 km, connecting Asia and Europe.
Structure: Not a single highway but a complex web of major and minor routes.
Key Routes:
- Main Route: Linked China to India and Central Asia via oasis cities, offering accommodation, food, and markets.
- Northern Route: A shorter but less-used route through the steppes, avoided due to pastoral tribes and lack of facilities.
- India-China Connection: Two lines from Xinjiang (via Kashgar and Yarkand) reached Taxila, with an internal line from Gansu to Kashgar.
Archaeological Survey: Conducted by Sir Aurel Stein, who explored the Silk Route across India, China, and Central Asia.
Spread of Buddhism to China
Timeline: Began in the 1st century C.E. during the Han dynasty’s expansion to Central Asia.
Han Dynasty’s Role:
- Controlled the Silk Route, facilitating cultural exchanges.
- Emperor Ming-ti sent representatives to India, who returned with monks Kashyapa Matang and Dharmaraksha in 67 C.E., carrying Buddhist texts on white horses.
White Horse Temple: Built in China to honor the monks, marking the first Buddhist temple in the country.
Text Translations:
- The monks translated Buddhist texts into Chinese.
- In the 4th century C.E., monk Kumarjeeva translated numerous texts, boosting Buddhism’s spread.
Popularity Surge:
- From the 3rd to 6th centuries C.E., political unrest drove people to Buddhism.
- By the 6th century, Theravada and Mahayana sects were well-established.
Later Influences: In the 7th century, Islam and Christianity emerged, but Kublai Khan’s interest in Buddhism sustained its influence.
Serendian Art Style
- Origin: Emerged in Xinjiang in the 1st century C.E., influenced by Mahayana Buddhist monks from Central Asia and Gandhara art.
- Characteristics: A blend of Greek, Persian, and Chinese art forms, featuring sculptures of Gautama Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
- Discovery: Terracotta sculptures of this style were uncovered by Sir Aurel Stein.
- Impact: Influenced Chinese Buddhist art, seen in rock-cut caves like Dunhuang’s Mogao Caves.
Buddhist Architecture in China
Temples and Viharas: Built extensively from the 4th to 6th centuries C.E., but few stupas were constructed.
Pagodas:
- Replaced stupas in Chinese temples, built in a multi-tiered style with reducing floor sizes.
- Initially wooden, later made of brick and stone, with a metal staff (yashti) and rings resembling Indian stupa umbrellas.
Dunhuang (Mogao Caves):
- Located on the Silk Route, these caves are a World Cultural Heritage site with nearly 500 caves containing sculptures and murals.
- A key meeting point for Chinese and foreign merchants, they yielded thousands of manuscripts.
Nomenclature
- Chinese Names for India: Referred to as Shen-tu, Tien-chu, Tien-tu, Xien-tu, Yuan-tu, Xuan-tu, with Yin-tu prevailing.
- Other Names: Kashmir and Kapisha (Begram) were sometimes called Ki Pin in Chinese texts.
Key Points
- Cultural Exchange: India’s influence was non-coercive, driven by trade and Buddhism, enriching local cultures.
- Trade Networks: The Silk Route and maritime trade connected India with Rome, Central Asia, and China, exchanging goods and ideas.
- Buddhist Legacy: Ashoka and Kanishka’s patronage spread Buddhism to Gandhara and China, leaving lasting archaeological and artistic traces.
- Artistic Influence: Gandhara and Serendian art styles blended Indian and foreign elements, shaping Buddhist art in China.
- Archaeological Evidence: Sites like Shahji-ki-Dheri, Takht-i-Bahi, Bamiyan, and Dunhuang highlight India’s cultural reach.
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