Kingdoms in South India
11.1 Important Kingdoms in South India
South India has significantly contributed to India’s history and cultural diversity through its kingdoms, languages, and cultural exchanges with North India. The Dravidian languages-Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, and Telugu-are prominent, with Brauhi in Baluchistan also part of this group. Ancient sources like Megasthenes’ Indica, Panini’s grammar, Ashoka’s inscriptions, and Tamil Sangham literature provide insights into South Indian history.
Chola, Pandya, and Chera Dynasties
Overview: These ancient Tamil dynasties ruled South India, frequently clashing to establish political supremacy.
Chola Dynasty:
- Established in the 1st century C.E. in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli, known as Cholamandala (anglicized as Coromandel).
- King Karikala, mentioned in Sangham literature, united eleven small kingdoms, defeated the Cheras and Pandyas, and established Tamil dominance.
Pandya Dynasty: Ruled from Pudukkottai to Kanyakumari, south of the Cholas.
Chera Dynasty: Established in Kerala, referred to as Kedalaputra (Sons of Kerala) in contemporary literature.
Satavahanas and Vakatakas
Satavahanas: A powerful dynasty north of the Krishna-Tungabhadra rivers, their power weakened by the 3rd century C.E.
Vakataka Dynasty:
- Emerged as the Satavahanas declined, founded by Vindhyashakti.
- King Pravarasena I expanded the empire from Malwa to Kolhapur and Kurnool, performed four Ashwamedha sacrifices, and took the title Samrat.
- The kingdom split into two branches: Nandivardhan (Nagardhan-Ramtek, Nagpur) and Vatsagulm (Washim).
Notable contributions:
- Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II, married Vakataka king Rudrasen II.
- Varahadev, a minister under Harishena, supported Buddhism and commissioned Ajanta Cave 16.
- Pravarasena II composed Setubandha in Maharashtri Prakrit.
- Kalidasa’s Meghadoota, composed during this period, references Vakataka geography.
Chalukyas
Overview: Ruled South India for ~200 years during Harshavardhan’s northern rule, with Vatapi (Badami) as the capital.
Key Rulers:
- Jaising: Founder, established the capital at Vatapi in the 6th century C.E.
- Pulakeshi I: Built the Badami fort, performed Ashwamedha, and took titles like Prithvivallabha and Satyashraya.
- Kirtivarman I: Conquered the Kadambas of Vanvasi and Mauryas of Aparanta, patronized art, and created Badami caves.
- Pulakeshi II: The greatest king, defeated multiple dynasties (Kadamba, Maurya, Nala, Kalchuri, Rashtrakuta, etc.), resisted Harshavardhan, and extended the empire from Narmada to Kaveri. Took the title Parameshwara. His fame reached Iran, with Badshah Khosrow Parvez sending an ambassador to his court.
Decline: Defeated by the Pallavas; the last king, Kirtivarman, was overthrown by Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga.
Pallavas
Overview: Ruled from the 6th to 9th centuries C.E., with Kanchi as the capital, known for their cultural and military achievements.
Key Rulers:
- Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman: Early rulers mentioned in copperplates.
- Simhavishnu: Conquered Chola territories, extending rule from Krishna to Kaveri.
- Mahendravarman: A scholar who wrote Mattavilasa (Sanskrit play) and books on music, dance, sculpture, and painting. Patronized monolithic Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram and temples at Tiruchirapalli and Arkat.
- Narsimhavarman: Defeated Pulakeshi II, built more Mahabalipuram temples, and hosted Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang. His literary works are key historical sources.
Decline: Ended in the 9th century C.E. when Chola king Aditya defeated them.
Rashtrakutas
Overview: Ruled from the Vindhyas to Kanyakumari, influential in both South and North India.
Key Rulers:
- Dantidurga: Founded the dynasty, defeated the Chalukyas.
- Krishna I: Uprooted Chalukya rule, built the Kailasa temple at Ellora.
- Amoghvarsh: A capable king, composed Ratnamalika and Kavirajmarg, and established Manyakheta (Malkhed) as a new city.
Decline: Weakened by attacks from Parmars and Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Shilaharas
Overview: Ruled as feudatories of Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas for ~300 years, with three branches: South Konkan, North Konkan, and Kolhapur. Called themselves Tagarapuradhishwar.
Founder: Jimutvahan.
South Konkan:
- Founded by Sanafulla; Dhammiyar built Vallipattana fort; Adityavarma expanded from Thane to Goa; Rattaraj was the last ruler.
- History known from Kharepatan copperplates.
North Konkan:
- Founded by Kapardi, with Sthanak (Thane) as the capital.
- Aparajita ruled for ~35 years; Mummuni built the Amreshwar Mahadev temple at Ambarnath, initiating Bhoomija-style architecture.
Kolhapur:
- Founded by Jatiga, covering Satara, Sangli, Ratnagiri, and Belgaum.
- Bhoj II was significant; capitals included Kolhapur, Valivade, and Panhala.
- Built the Koppeshwar Mahadev temple at Khidrapur.
Gonds
Overview: Established at Chanda (Chandrapur) during the Yadava period.
Founder: Kol Bheel, who united the Gond tribe and rebelled against the Naga dynasty.
Key Events:
- Capital initially at Sirpur, later shifted to Ballarpur by Khandkya Ballal Singh, who built the Achaleshwar temple.
- Queen Durgavati resisted Mughal emperor Akbar, choosing death over surrender.
Decline: Nilkanth Shah was defeated by Raghuji Bhosale, merging Gond territories into Nagpur’s kingdom.
Yadavas
Overview: A key medieval Maharashtra dynasty, culturally significant.
Key Rulers:
- Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.): Defeated Kalachuris, established Devgiri as the capital.
- Singhan: Defeated Hoysalas and Shilaharas, expanding Yadava rule.
Decline: Attacked by Alauddin Khalji in 1294 C.E.; Ramadeva was defeated. Malik Kafur’s campaigns (1307-1318 C.E.) ended their rule.
Cultural Importance:
- Rise of Mahanubhav and Warkari sects.
- Literary works: Lilacharitra (Mhamimbhatta), Viveksindhu (Mukundaraj), Dnyaneshwari (Dnyaneshwar), and Abhangas by Namadeva, Janabai, and Chokhoba.
- Sanskrit texts: Chaturvargachintamani (Aparark), Sangitaratnakara (Sharangdev).
- Hemadpanti temples (e.g., Gondeshwar at Sinnar, Anjaneri complex) and forts (Ankai, Tankai).
11.2 Administrative System, Trade, Social Life
Administrative System
Officials: Included Mahadandanayaka, Rashtrika, Deshadhikruta, Amatya, and Ayukta.
Chola Administration:
- Council called Udankuttam.
- Kingdom divided into Mandalam (provinces), led by royal family members.
- Subordinate officers: Vishayapati, Deshadhipati, Deshadhikrut, Rashtrika.
Village Autonomy:
- Gramasabha (village council) managed local administration, led by Gramabhojaka or Gramakuta, elected or appointed.
- Similar councils operated at district and provincial levels.
Efficiency: Orders were recorded and authenticated; land revenue, excise, professional, and pilgrimage taxes were primary income sources.
Trade and Economy
Professions: Specialized skills flourished, including ivory from Malayagiri and textiles from Cholamandala (cotton, silk) and Chera (fine cloth for Indo-Roman trade).
Trade Hubs: Cities like Paithan, Tagar (Ter), and Nashik thrived; markets were centrally located.
Merchant Guilds (Shreni): Played a vital role in trade and social systems.
Coins:
- Mauryan coins initially circulated; Pandya coins had symbols like sun, horse, stupa.
- Chera coins showed bow and arrow, elephant; Chola coins featured a tiger emblem.
- Chalukya coins (Rajaraja) used gold, silver, copper with his image.
- Roman coins, re-stamped with Indian seals, indicate trade with Rome.
Social Life
- South Indian society was vibrant, with cultural exchanges enriching Indian unity.
- Dravidian languages shaped social identity, with trade and guilds fostering economic and social cohesion.
11.3 Literature, Art, Architecture
Literature
Tamil Tradition:
- Sangham literature, from three councils, is a key source of South Indian political history.
Sanskrit and Prakrit:
- Kalidasa’s Meghadoota composed at Ramtek (Vakataka period).
- Pravarasena II’s Setubandha (Maharashtri Prakrit).
- Sarvasena’s Harivijaya (Vatsagulm Vakatakas).
Yadava Period:
- Marathi works: Dnyaneshwari, Lilacharitra, Viveksindhu.
- Sanskrit texts: Sangitaratnakara, Chaturvargachintamani.
Art
- Vakataka Period: Ajanta caves (1, 2, 16, 17, 19) showcase advanced sculptural art and paintings, reflecting knowledge of physiology and nature.
- Chola Period: Bronze statue of Nataraj Shiva, among the finest Indian metal sculptures.
Architecture
Styles:
- Dravida Style: Prevalent from Krishna to Kanyakumari, characterized by reducing storeys in Shikhara. Examples: Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal (Kanchi), Brihadeshwara (Tanjore).
- Vesara Style: Seen in Chalukya temples at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal.
Key Structures:
- Kailasa temple (Ellora, Rashtrakutas).
- Mahabalipuram Ratha temples (Pallavas).
- Amreshwar Mahadev (Ambarnath, Shilaharas, Bhoomija style).
- Koppeshwar Mahadev (Khidrapur, Shilaharas).
- Hemadpanti temples (Sinnar, Anjaneri, Yadavas, using interlocking stones without mortar).
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