Notes Class 11 Chapter 1 History Maharashtra Board

First Farmers

1.1 River Valley Civilisations

Introduction: River valley civilisations emerged in four key regions due to the availability of water and fertile land: Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian Subcontinent, and China.

Evolution of Tool-Making:

• Homo habilis created the first stone tools for simple tasks like scraping meat, splitting bones, and breaking nuts, marking the beginning of technological advancement.
• Later human species improved these tools, leading to significant technological progress.

Transition to Neolithic Age:

• Mesolithic people observed seasonal cycles, domesticated plants and animals, and shifted from a nomadic lifestyle to settled villages.
• Systematic agriculture began around 12,000-11,000 years ago, leading to the rise of Neolithic Age and river valley civilisations.

Evidence of Early Cultivation:

• Scientists at Bar Ilan University (Israel) found evidence of cultivation dating back 23,000 years at Ohalo, near the Sea of Galilee. Remains of barley, cereals, fruit seeds, weeds (evolved types linked to cultivated crops), and grinding stones were discovered, indicating early farming.

1.2 Beginning of Cultivation: Agricultural Production

Transition from Hunter-Gatherer to Farmer:

• The shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to cultivation spanned 10,000-8,700 B.C.E., marking the start of the Neolithic Age.
• Domestication of animals accompanied the cultivation of crops like barley, wheat, and flaxseed.

Technological Advancements:

• Mesolithic tools evolved from heavy Palaeolithic tools to microliths (tiny blades made using the Fluted Core technique) for hunting small animals and harvesting cereals.
• Composite tools (e.g., fishing harpoons, spears, arrows) were made by hafting microliths onto wooden or bone shafts.

Environmental Context:

• The end of the last Glacial period (Holocene epoch, 12,000-11,000 years ago) increased water availability, supporting vegetation and small animal populations.
• Extinction of large animals (e.g., mammoths) led to reliance on fish and smaller species.

Impact:

• Abundant food encouraged longer stays in one place, leading to systematic cultivation and permanent settlements.
• Australian archaeologist Gordon Childe termed this shift the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ due to its radical lifestyle changes.

1.3 The First Farmers in India

Definition of Neolithic Age:

• Derived from ‘neo’ (new) and ‘lithic’ (stone), it refers to the use of polished stone tools like axe heads and rings for clearing land and shaping wood.

Key Sites in India:

• Mehrgarh (Baluchistan): Established around 7,000 B.C.E., it is a significant Neolithic site where farmers grew barley and wheat and domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep, living in mud houses.
• Lahuradeva (Uttar Pradesh): A contemporary site showing early agricultural practices.
• Inamgaon (Pune, Maharashtra): A Chalcolithic site (not purely Neolithic) where the first farmers of Maharashtra cultivated crops, indicating a later phase of farming.

Regional Context:

• In Maharashtra, Mesolithic people (10,000-4,000 B.C.E.) used microliths and lived in caves, but no pure Neolithic sites exist; Chalcolithic villages like Inamgaon mark the farming beginning.

Tools and Practices:

• Polished stone axes were used to clear jungles for cultivation and settlement.

1.4 Agricultural Settlements: Organisation and Administration

Population and Structure:

• Mesolithic groups (25-40 people) grew to 50-100 in Neolithic villages to support agriculture and animal husbandry.
• Villages featured round huts and central storage areas, suggesting centralized food control.

Social Organisation:

• A hierarchical power structure emerged, with norms for household boundaries, land ownership, and kinship.
• Training in family-specific skills (e.g., farming, crafts) began, laying the foundation for inheritance and social stratification.

Craft Development:

• Pottery: Began in the second Neolithic phase (except in Japan’s Jomon culture, where it started in the Mesolithic). Initially handmade and monochrome, it later included wheel-made pots with burnished surfaces, carved designs, stamping, and applique work.
• Knowledge for Pottery:
  1. Identifying clay sources.
  2. Obtaining and preparing clay.
  3. Shaping pots.
  4. Decorating with artistic skills.
  5. Firing at 850º-900º Celsius.
• Bead-Making: Involved sourcing siliceous stones and chank shells, obtaining raw materials, manufacturing beads, and transporting them, requiring specialized artisans.

Cultural Significance:

• Pottery and beads provide insights into ancient cultures, trade contacts, and material wealth.

1.5 Trade and Transport

Early Trade:

• Mesolithic barter systems evolved in the Neolithic age with the production of surplus goods (e.g., pottery, beads).

Invention of the Wheel:

• Neolithic people used axes and chisels to shape wooden logs into wheels, revolutionizing transport and trade.
• Wheels enabled carts for goods movement and wheel-made pottery production, enhancing trade efficiency.

Impact:

• Easier access to raw materials and markets fostered economic growth and cultural exchange.

1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation

Settlement Evolution:

• Permanent settlements led to ownership of land and dwellings, developing the concept of territoriality.
• Expanded villages required management of collective resources (water, crafts, trade), leading to rules and rituals.

Administrative Development:

• Need for record-keeping, writing systems, and administrative centers attracted diverse populations (officials, artisans), expanding settlements into cities.

Process:

• The transition from villages (e.g., Mehrgarh) to urban centers (e.g., Harappan cities) marked the beginning of urbanisation, driven by social organization and economic complexity.

Key River Valley Civilisations

Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates Valleys):

• Location: Modern Iraq, Syria, western Iran, south-eastern Turkey.
• Features: Fertile soil from annual floods; first Neolithic villages (10,000 B.C.E.) grew wheat and barley.

Egypt (Nile Valley):

• Location: Northern Africa.
• Features: Neolithic villages (6,000 B.C.E.) cultivated wheat and barley; named ‘Kemet’ (black soil) and later ‘Egypt’ by Greeks.

China (Huang He Valley):

• Location: Origin of Chinese culture.
• Features: Agriculture (7,000 B.C.E.) with wheat, foxtail millet, and rice; Huang He (Yellow River) called ‘Mother’ and ‘Sorrow’ due to floods.

Indian Subcontinent (Sindhu and Saraswati Valleys):

• Location: India and Pakistan.
• Features: Neolithic villages (8,000 B.C.E.) evolved into Harappan civilisation (3,000 B.C.E.); barley and wheat were main crops.

Additional Information: Neolithic Sites in India

• Northwest: Mehrgarh (Phase I: 7,000-6,000 B.C.E. no pottery; Phase II: 6,000-4,000 B.C.E. pottery began).
• Jammu and Kashmir: Burzhom, Gufkral (2,500 B.C.E.).
• Uttar Pradesh: Chopani Mando, Koldihwa, Mahagara (6,000 B.C.E.).
• Bihar: Chirand, Senuwar (2,000 B.C.E.).
• Northeast: Daojali Hading (Assam, 2,700 B.C.E., linked to Chinese tools).
• South India: Karnatak (Sangankallu, Maski, Brahmagiri), Andhra Pradesh (Nagarjunikonda), Tamil Nadu (Payyampalli) (4th-3rd century B.C.E.).

Key Concepts

• Neolithic Revolution: Radical shift to settled life, agriculture, and craft specialization.
• Holocene Epoch: Post-Glacial period (12,000-11,000 years ago) enabling agriculture.
• Jericho: Early Neolithic settlement (9,000 B.C.E.) with walls and evidence of fig cultivation at Gilgal.